Mary,mystic rose or revolutionary?
Fr. Tissa Balasuriya
Sri Lanka's Catholic Church was plunged into one of its biggest crises over the excommunication (since recinded) of Fr. Tissa Balasuriya for alleged heresy in his book titled "Mary and Human Liberation" Most people including Catholics don't have much of an idea of what in heaven's name is going on because very few have read and understood the book. With the aim of bringing about a better public awareness on the issue, The Sunday Times London, began serialising the more important or controversial chapters from Fr. Balasuriya's book. Here are some extracts:
Here are extracts from the Preface, the first and second chapters of Fr. Tissa Balasuriya's controversial book Mary and Human Liberation. They are presented for your information, and in order that you may read for yourself part of the Balasuriya treatise.
Preface from the book
Mary rediscovered
Mary is very important in Catholic spirituality. Teaching concerning her and devotion to Mary are among the most difficult issues in the inter-Christian ecumenical dialogue. Many Protestants think that Catholics give her an almost divine place in the plan of salvation. Attitudes towards Mary are also important in the present theological dialogue around feminism and third world theologies. Mary has been interpreted in favour of male domination and of conformism to the prevailing social inequality. We have therefore to ask ourselves how the present theology concerning Mary arose in the Catholic tradition.
Marian theology raises critical issues of hermeneutics, as does almost any branch of theology today. Mariology has been linked to the theology of domination that has held sway over Western Europe and has been transposed, with the missionary expansion of the church, to most of the Catholic world. How and why did this theology arise? The search for a more meaningful Marian theology and spirituality has taken us to questioning of many of the assumptions or presuppositions of traditional Christian theology.
The translation of the texts of the Bible is important for Mariology also e.g. concerning the virginity of Mary, and as to whether she had other children in addition to Jesus. Marian theology is influenced by the way the scripture texts concerning Mary have been selectively utilized and emphasized in theology. Thus the socially radical significance of the Magnificat attributed to her was bypassed during many centuries.
Traditional theology has depended much on the literal interpretation of the first few chapters of Genesis as was prevalent in the church throughout the centuries. A non-literal interpretation of these texts was officially accepted by the church only in this century through the Biblical Commission. Prior to that even though there were theologians who spoke of the allegorical nature of this narrative, the main thrust of the church teaching was to present them as actual historical events. Was not this literal interpretation a foundation of the doctrine of original sin communicated by generations to all humanity? The explanation concerning original sin was, in turn the basis for the doctoring of Immaculate Conception which is one of the principal privileges attributed to Mary.
As feminist theologians point out, the male authorship of the books of the Bible may explain the androcentric accent of the scriptures in their presentation of Jesus' story. Each of the evangelists has his own constituency and priorities in writing a gospel. Connected to this is also the silence of the scriptures concerning many aspects of Mary's life which might have been recorded if a woman wrote a gospel. We might then have known more about Mary, her personality, identity and sense of personal mission in those troubled times.
Marian theology is connected to and depends on the general core and construct of the rest of theology. Christian theology is about God, the universe, human life, redemption and our destiny after this life. The teaching on these has been evolved historically by the interpretation given to the scriptures and the message of Jesus by the church authorities. The theological controversies and the Councils of the church have been the occasions for the development and definition of some of the central doctrines of Christianity. Mariology has been intimately linked to these decisions on the identity, nature, personality, mission and role of Jesus Christ. Mary's personality, privileges and role in the divine plan are linked to the teaching concerning her son Jesus.
The definitions of the Councils of Nicene, Ephesus and Chalcedon in the 4th and 5th centuries were crucial in the evolution of Christian theology, particularly Christology. These definitions are concerning matters that are beyond human comprehension and belong to the area of humanly inscrutable mystery. The question then arises as to how the Councils came to conclusions concerning these issues. What is the role of ecclesiastical authority in determining the truth concerning these mysteries? What is the role of the civil and political powers that were also involved in resolving these theological controversies? How far are the traditional interpretations of Mariology dependent on this councillar process which involved a compromise between the church and the imperial powers of the day?
In this connection the assumption or hypothesis of original sin and its consequences is crucial for subsequent Christology and Mariology. A rethinking on the position of human nature in relation to sin and redemption would imply a change in the understanding of the life and role of Mary. What is human redemption, is a critical background issue for Mariology.
Since these theological doctrines and definitions are about matters which are beyond the competence of human understanding, we can query whether they are truths communicated to us by God, and/or whether the human imagination itself has contributed towards their elaboration. What then is the role of imagination in the evolution of theologies? How far would the accepted myths of a society contribute toward this process?
Ideology too may have had a significant role in the elaboration of Marian theology. Male domination may have contributed to the theological perceptions concerning Mary and these may in turn have helped consolidate the privileged position of the males in the religious and social set-up. Is it possible that the self- interrest of the decision makers and power holders had a role to play in the development of Marian theology?
Throughout the Catholic world, popular religiosity has enhanced Marian devotions. There is a warm and eager recourse to Mary as Mother, protectress and intercessor. She softens the presentation of God as the just judge. The apparitions of Our Lady have also contributed to popular religiosity as well as to the confirmation of theological doctrines, as the immaculate conception at Lourdes. The shrines, places of pilgrimage, prayers, hymns, litanies, novenas, and preaching in the church nourish people's devotion to Mary.
It is in this overall context that we try to reflect on the meaning of Mary specially for our times and in the circumstances of an unjust world. We have proposed a principle for the critique and evaluation of theological propositions and presuppositions. We try to evoke the life and message of Mary from a reading of the gospel story itself. We have also given some space for our imagination. But it is not for elaborating theological teachings on humanly incomprehensible issues, such as the condition of Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden. We have tried to understand what sort of a life Mary and her companions might have lived in the tumultuous times of repression of persons, social injustice, a burdensome religion, foreign occupation and a people's rebellion against these.
We reflect on the gospel evidence, scanty though it be, about the life of Mary. We see her as a mature adult woman who was concerned about the condition of her people. She supported the struggle of her son and the group that gathered around him in a search for integral human liberation. In this book our reflection on Mary is very much in relation to the life and mission of Jesus. It is in the perspective of an understanding of Jesus that is different from that of traditional Christology. Our presentation too may be subject to the criticism that Mary is not thought of adequately independently in her own right but in relation to Jesus. While there is some truth in this, our perception of Mary is quite different from her presentation in traditional theology. We see her as a woman of real life, involved in the day to day struggles of ordinary people at personal and community levels. Her experience would thus be close to that of today's women and men also.
In Chapter 7 the message of Jesus is expressed as a call to conversion from a state of sin to one of virtue. Some of the words used to describe this process, such as "from pride to humility and service" need some purification or clarification. As the feminist movement stresses, in a certain sense, women need more to affirm, than to efface, themselves. A sense of self-worth and a legitimate pride in oneself are also good and necessary.
Women's sense of service is often exploited by the others, especially the males. These words concerning conversion should, therefore, be understood in such a way as to be ennobling for all and not an encouragement to an undue self-abnegation of women leading to their alienation.
The perception of Mary presented in this book, we think, can be meaningful for people everywhere, and not merely for us in the poor countries. As the world is one of injustice, Mary's message of justice and liberation, is relevant for the poor and the rich, for the victims of injustice as well as those in oppressor situations. Marian spirituality can be an inspiration for the profound conversion that is required among all in our world of hunger in the midst of plenty, of war and threats of war, of the exploitation of persons and of nature, and of large scale deaths and destruction caused by human selfishness and unconcern for others. We urge a rethinking on Mary so that devotion to her may not be a means of human alienation but of overall human betterment of women and men everywhere.
We are conscious of treading on ground that is delicate, and capable of arousing strong reactions among some Catholics. Our intention is not to dilute Marian devotion but to help make it more meaningful and truly fulfilling for all. It can motivate us towards the new ministries required in our times: commitment to justice, inter religious dialogue, action for peace, the liberation of women, the care for nature. All these can deepen practices such as the novenas, family prayers and group reflections. Marian Shrines, with a renewed theology, can be centres of renewal for the Christian community and all pilgrims. This perception of Mary can also foster understanding among the Christian Churches. We hope the dialogue that may be generated by this work will add further light on the issues involved.
Tissa Balasuriya, OMI
Mary in Catholic devotion
Mary, the mother of Jesus has a very special place in Catholic devotion.
The Second Vatican Council placed its teaching concerning Mary as the final chapter of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, LUMEN GENTIUM. In it the Council explains the "nature and basis of the cult of the Blessed Virgin".
"Mary has by grace been exalted above all angels and men (sic) to a place second only to her Son, as the most Holy Mother of God who was involved in the mysteries of Christ; she is rightly honoured by a special cult in the Church. From the earliest times the Blessed Virgin is honoured under the title of Mother of God, whose protection the faithful take refuge in together in prayer in all their perils and needs (Sub Tuum Praesidium).
"Accordingly, following the Council of Ephesus, there was a remarkable growth in the cult of People of God towards Mary. In veneration and love, in invocation and imitation, according to her own prophetic words: "all generations shall call me blessed, because he that is mighty hath done great things to me" (Luke 1.48), Vatican II: Constitution on the Church 1965 - Art 66.Ó
In the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (1963) the Vatican Council recalls the place of Mary in the liturgy:
"In celebrating this annual cycle of Christ's mysteries,the Holy Church honours with especial love the Blessed Mary, Mother of God, who is joined by an inseparable bond to the saving work of her Son. In her the Church holds up and admires the most excellent fruit of the redemption, and joyfully contemplates, as in a faultless image, that which she herself desires and hopes wholly to be" - (Art 103).
These two texts of the most recent and most important Council of the Catholic Church give the understanding concerning Marian devotion in the Catholic Church during centuries up to the 1960s and even to our own days.
Mary is venerated and loved as Mother of God, invoked in perils and in needs for protection and refuge and to be imitated as the most perfect human after Jesus.
We shall endeavor to see how the traditional devotion of the Church has influenced Christian spirituality.
In keeping with this centrality of Mary in the life of Jesus and the Church, the Christians, particularly in the Catholic and Orthodox Churches have developed their piety and spirituality in a close and deep relationship to Mary; perhaps no other person has so many Churches and shrines dedicated to her/him in the whole world. People have built large and beautiful Cathedrals in her honour. The world's most popular pilgrimages in all the Continents are Marian shrines. Christian artists, poets and spiritual writers have devoted their noblest talents to present and praise her. Numerous families of religious nuns, brothers and priests and lay organizations take Mary as their patroness. Several countries are consecrated to her. Marian hyms are among the most popular in Catholic chant, Marian prayers are the ones most commonly recited - perhaps after the Lord's Prayer, the "Our Father". The Rosary is the companion of the millions of persons in their quiet moments.
Main themes in Traditional Marian Devotions
The popular understanding of Mary is expressed in the Marian devotion such as at her shrines, in the celebration of her feasts and in the prayers recited by Christians. Among these the Marian hymns are important as they express in music and with feeling the content of Catholic belief and with their expectations of Mary. To these may be added popular prayers such as the "Hail Mary", "Remember O Most Gracious Virgin Mary" (Memorare), "We fly to thy patronage", "The sub tuum Praesidium", "The Angelus" and "Regina Coeli," -" the Hail Holy Queen" (Salve Regina) and the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The prayers and hymns indicate the prevailing belief and theology at a given time.
The Marian Hymns sung by the English speaking congregations in Sri Lanka show the type of accent placed in Marian devotions. Two popular hymnals are the Hymn Book - Songs for Worship and Praise, St. Philip Neri's Church, Colombo, Mclean Printers (no date), and Hymnal, Church of Our Lady of Fatima, Fatima Church, Maradana, St. VincentŐs Press, Maggona, 1986.
In these there are 19 hymns to Our Lady. 7 hymns are in both booklets. Of the 19 one is the "Magnificat". This contains a radical social message such as:
"He casts the mighty from their thrones
and raises the lowly
he fills the starving with good things
sends the rich away empty .."
This song with revolutionary import is not of recent origin. It is from the words attributed to Mary herself in the Gospel of St. Luke 1.55 and harks back to the Old Testament. Thus we have a directly biblical song which has a clear reference to God's concern for social justice and integral human liberation.
There are two other hymns which have a passing reference to Mary's courage. One is: "All Hail to you Mary" - 238 in St. Philip Neri hymnal and 13 in Fatima Church Hymnal.
"When Gabriel had spoken
You humbly said "yes"
May we have the courage
God's word to confess"
Here courage is in confessing God's word and refers to Mary's humility. There is no clear reference to courage in society as Jesus and Mary actually manifested in their day. In the other hymn "The wonders he has done for me" (170 in St. Philip Neri Hymnal) the second verse reads:
"Through your heart a sword will pass in sorrow
Opening a mother's love to men
Showing us the courage of a woman
Standing with her son against all men."
Here there is an appreciation of Mary's courage in standing by Jesus when he was condemned and crucified. Similarly in hymn 78 in Fatima Hymnal "No man can live as an island".
Other than these three references and the Magnificat the 15 other popular hymns have an approach to Mary that does not expressly appreciate her strong adult womanhood. She is not seen as participating in the life struggle of her Son Jesus. His message of radical liberation is totally absent in these hymns.
Mary is presented in the hymns as a humble virgin mother. She is dearest, fairest, purest, brightest, rarest Madonna. She is a loving tender, "gentle chaste and spotless maid", ever caring, hearing our prayers. Her role is linked to the view that Jesus paid the price of our iniquity. "She saves us from peril and from woe". "Whom the Holy Spirit filled with grace", "Virgin of all Virgins", "Lily of the valley", "Mystic Rose".
As a woman, Mary is shown as tender and loving but not concerned with removing the human-made societal causes of poverty, injustice and the exploitation of woman. Her sexuality is emphasized but as a rare virgin of virgins. She is placed at a level in which ordinary women can hardly follow her. On the other hand the emphasis on her physical virginity and her being immaculate draw attention on sex character and preservation from sin and temptation. This corresponds to a spirituality that stressed the virtues and sins of sex relations and neglected the other sins of human and social relations such as selfishness, injustice, exploitation and male domination and the corresponding virtues.
This is quite different from the personality of Mary that we see in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Her strength of character, her adult womanly qualities of contesting the social evils of the day along with her son are not recalled in these hymns except in the magnificat and few lines of three other hymns.
The hymns also present the humans as weak, dependent, sinful, needing help and tenderness. While this is partly true, they do not present us as having a role to play in the liberation of humanity from the social evils which are part of the cause of our misery. The active virtues of co-creativity on earth and in human relations are neglected. The positive values of human sexuality are not only neglected but even down graded.
Thus these Marian hymns contribute towards making Christians less concerned with the transformation of society. They are encouraged to be dependent on Mary for resolving their individual concerns, but not towards bringing about the radical change that the Magnificat announces. This Marian spirituality makes for less socially concerned women and men in the Church.
Sinhala Hymns to Mary
As in English hymns, the hymns to Mary in Sinhala carry the same message. In the hymnal of Fatima Church there are 12 hymns to Mary 163, 170, 187, 188, 194, 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 219.
Of these 204 is the Magnificat and has its radical message. However as one Church organist explained to me, though this hymn is sung off and on, it is seldom that the verses of the latter half are sung as the hymn is long. The Mass or other services would be unduly lengthened if the whole Magnificat is sung. It is sung at the Vespers on the eve of the Church feast amidst the din and joy of the celebrations. The other hymns are as in English though 205 refers to the cross of Jesus, and 206 "Ridie Vala Gabin" has a reference to the flight into Egypt. Yet even here the reference is to Mary;s protection.
The Sinhala hymns are even more flowery in language than the English ones. The language is beautiful with alliteration and simple beautiful words. The music is attractive and the sentiments are those of praise of Mary, our human weakness and sinfulness and Mary's maternal care for us - taking us under her mantle. Thus No.170: "Mariya Rajiniye"
Hymn No. 202 - "Ma Mavni" says it more expressively
"Our dear mother Mary is light for our blindness, strength in our weakness, grace for our sinfulness."
These are all good sentiments. The problem is not that they are felt and expressed but that the Church hymns miss the complementary positive human strengths and Christianity's radical social message. They tend to make the liturgy a complacent exercise. They foster the sentiments of dependence and filial piety but do not move persons towards a strong commitment to an active sense of human values and responsibility including the remedying of our social and political evils. It rather makes our Marian piety individualistic, asocial and security seeking, given our weakness, sinfulness and fear.
The Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary has been a very popular prayer in Churches and in Catholic homes. It was approved for public recitation in Churches by Pope Sextus V. in 1589. An analysis of its themes brings out the concepts of Mother and Virgin.
Motherhood - Mother of God, of Christ, of divine grace, Mother most pure, most chaste, inviolate, undefiled, most lovable, most admirable, of good Counsel, of our Creator, of our Saviour. These qualities are attributed to Mary. They relate to her sexual purity and her care and concern for us. There is little or no reference to what she had to undergo as the mother of the human Jesus who led a very troubled life specially during his public ministry.
Virginity - Her virginity is recalled and praised. Mary is the Virgin most prudent, most venerable, most renowned, most powerful, most merciful, most faithful. Here too there is an accent on her biological status, and that considered as most significant for her virtue, fame and power.
Thereafter there are several titles which are associated with Old Testament prophecies and symbolism, but some are less meaningful in our time:
Mirror Of Justice, Seat of wisdom, Cause of our joy, spiritual vessel, singular vessel of devotion, mystical rose, Tower of David, Tower of ivory, House of Gold, Ark of the Covenant, Gate of Heaven, Morning Star, Health of the Sick, Refuge of Sinners, Comfort of the Afflicted, Help of Christians.
In these again we see the themes of veneration, and invocation of help in our troubles. Help of Christians, of course, presents her as particularly concerned with Christians though she is also regarded as a universal mother of all humanity redeemed by her Son.
The final set of 12 invocations are to her as Queen. of Angels, Patriarchs, Prophets, Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors, Virgins and All Saints.
Thereafter her special grace of immaculate conception (added by Pope Leo XIII) and assumption into heaven (added by Pope Pius XII in 1950) are recalled. Finally she is Queen of the Most Holy Rosary and Queen of Peace, the last being added by Pope Benedict XV during World War 1 .
This litany shows how the themes of prayer are very much influenced by the prevailing theology, which in turn is influenced by the interests and concerns of mainly the power holders of a community. There is little or no reference to Mary's Magnificat with its radical implications or the message of religious and social liberation of her son for which he gave his life.
The "Hail Mary" is the most commonly recited Marian prayer. Millions of Catholics recite it several times each day . Its first part is from the message of the Angel Gabriel to Mary at the Annunciation - from the Gospel of St. Luke (1. 26-38). The second part "Holy Mary Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death" has again the invocation to her as from poor sinners. This is a concept of salvation in which the liberative aspect of transformation of values, relationships and structures is absent. We are made suppliants, without a motivation for an active participation in social liberation of an integral nature. Since the "Hail Mary" is the most common personal and public Marian prayer, this absence of a socially liberative dynamic has a significant impact on tranquilizing Catholics. There is no suggestion that this is intended, but it can be the unintended (subconscious) effect of a most often repeated prayer.
The significance of the Hail Mary would have been different if it included an invocation for support of Mary for radical social change such as; help us oppressed to bring down the mighty and exalt the humble, to fill the hungry with good things and send the rich away with empty hands (from the same Gospel Luke 1.52). This too could have become a routine like the Magnificat recited at Vespers, but the chances are that a different Marian spirituality could also have been developed through such prayers.
The Rosary, coming down to us from the middle ages is mainly a recitation of Hail Mary's with a meditation on the 5 joyful, 5 sorrowful and 5 glorious mysteries of the lives of Jesus and Mary. The impact of this reflection depends very much on the understanding of the mystery of salvation through Jesus Christ. Since till recently an understanding of salvation in Christ had little to do with integral human liberation, the recitation of the rosary on this count too did not have much of an impact beyond the general themes of a traditional Christology and Mariology.
Marian Apparitions
One example of the way in which Marian spirituality has been evolving In the Catholic Church are the apparitions of Mary. Generally the apparitions reveal the conditioning of the Christians during a given time and a particular place. For instance at Lourdes, Mary appears to Bernadette and speaks of herself as the Immaculate Conception. But she does not say anything about the conditions of the working class in France of the day. It was the heyday of the growth of industrial capitalism in Western Europe. The working class was being severely exploited. Mary as the Mother of all, and specially as a woman of the working class should have felt the social evils to be a grave injustice.
Why was Mary of Lourdes incapable of enlightening the French Christians concerning the atrocities being committed in Africa by their compatriots? These things were done almost in alliance with the Christian Churches. We see how Marian spirituality ignores such important aspects of Christian witness. On the other hand If Bernadette did speak of such things as the rights of French workers or of the African natives, the shrine of Lourdes would probably not have developed in the manner it has during one and a quarter centuries.
In 1917 Mary appeared in Fatima. 1917 was the year of the Communist revolution in Russia. The interpretation of the message to Fatima was said to be a warning against atheistic communism and its threat to the world. In the meantime Portugal was under the dictatorship of Salazar, and the Portuguese were exploiting the Africans in Angola and Mozambique. Yet Mary seems to say nothing about these internal and external evils of the then ruling Portuguese regime. Thus this Mary who comes to us in apparitions and is accepted by the dominant establishment is not a liberating Mary. She speaks of sin, prayer and consciousness of their positive worth and role in the Church and world. Such Marian devotions do not communicate to women the sense of their dignity and rights. The services are usually dominated by a male clergy and women are the recipients ot advice and benedictions. The consciousness of Mary as an adult lay woman and mother who participated actively in the life work of Jesus and in the mission of the early Church is not communicated by these devotions.
The male dominated patriarchal salvation-oriented theology of the period from St Augustine (400 AD) to Vatican II(1965) still pervades much of the Marian piety in Sri Lanka. There are a few changes here and there but very much more can be done in this regard to present Mary as seen in the Gospels and in a manner relevant to today's struggles.
Individualistic, asocial Mariology
The Church teaching has been evolving over the centuries with the proclamation of:
- Mary Mother of God: in 432 at the Council of Epbesus.
- Virginity of Mary: by Pope Martin I, 649. Perpetual and perfect virginity of Mary before and after the birth of Jesus lateran Council - Denz. 503.
- Immaculate Conception: in 1854 by Pope Pius IX
- Assumption into Heaven: in 1950 by Pope Pius XII
This development of Mariology in this form is related to the hypotheses of original justice and original sin. For without them there would be no need of a divine redeemer and an act of ontological redemption to be posed by such a redeemer on behalf of the whole humanity. The traditional Catholic doctrine on salvation is intimately linked to the teaching concerning the human predicament as a consequence of the fall. It is based on the fall that Jesus Christ is presented as the necessary, unique and universal saviour. Correspondingly the involvement of Mary in the salvific function of Jesus Christ is linked to the fall.
The four gospels do not speak of original justice and the fall of humanity. There are references in St. Paul's writing which were later developed into the teaching on original sin and redemption by Jesus Christ (Rom 5.6-21, and Col. 1.13-14). In succeeding centuries the church taught that humanity was in bondage to Satan due to the sin of the first parents and that an infinite reparation had to be offered to God for the redemption of humanity. Jesus Christ God-man had the function of fulfilling this redemptive task by his incarnation and death.
Since Jesus the God-man could never be under the dominion of Satan even by original sin, it was argued that he was not born of a human father. Hence the development of the view that Jesus was conceived in the womb of Mary due to the "overshadowing" of the Holy Spirit. Based on the story of the birth of Jesus as told by Matthew (1.18-24) and Luke (1.26-38), and on this hypothesis of salvation in the context of original sin the teaching on the Virginity of Mary was advanced from about the 3rd Century onwards.
As Vatican II states,
Mary was seen as cooperating in the work of human salvation:
"Being obedient, she became the cause of salvation for herself and for the whole human race." (81 Irenaeus: Adv, haer - III. 22.4 quoted in Vatican II Lumen Gentium Art 56.)
Vatican II continues:
"Hence not a few of the early Fathers gladly assert with him (St. Irenaeus) in their preaching: "The knot of Eve's disobedience was united by Mary's obedience, what the virgin Eve bound through her unbelief, Mary loosened by her faith. Comparing Mary with Eve, they call her "Mother of the Living", and frequently claim: - death through Eve, life through Mary - " .
Vatican II here quotes in addition to St. Irenaeous, St. Ephiphanus, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. John Chrysostom and St. Johan Damascene. (L.G. art. 56) Vatican Ii and these fathers attribute virginity not only to Mary but also to Eve in the Garden of Eden (without of course any evidence for it, even if there was a first couple Adam and Eve).
It was not enough that Jesus should be born without a human father, it was necessary that his mother should be without original sin, otherwise she would transmit it to Jesus by generation, according to the theory that was being developed. Thus we have the gradual evolution of the teaching concerning the conception of Mary in the womb of her mother St. Anne without the stain of original sin. Thus it was taught that Mary was conceived immaculate. This was eventually defined as a dogma by Pope Plus IX in 1854.
From the teachings concerning the immaculate conception of Mary it was argued that she had no inclination to sin. She was free of concupiscence. Due to this and her faith in God she was supremely holy holier than any human being except her son Jesus.
Her divine maternity was a derivation from the divinity of Jesus, she was proclaimed "theotokos" Mother of God by the Council Ephesus in 432 against Nestorious.
Her Assumption into heaven was argued on the basis that her body could not bear corruption as it did not have to pay the "wages of sin which is death", and because the tradition of the Church believed in this doctrine for many centuries. On 15th August, 1950 Pope Pius XII defined the dogma of the Assumption of Mary, body and soul, into heaven.
The roles assigned to Mary as co-redemptive are due to her close association with Jesus in his life, work, passion and death. She shared in this redemptive task more than any other person except Jesus. Due to her motherhood of Jesus she is regarded as the universal mother of the redeemed, and of all humanity. By the incarnation Jesus is related to the whole of humanity. Due to her sublime holiness and co- redeeming function she is Queen of the Universe and of Heaven.
As Mary was closely associated with Jesus in his earthly mission, she loved all humanity with a self- sacrificing love as Jesus did. She is all powerful in heaven as she is intimately linked to the Holy Trinity, being mother of Jesus, spouse of the Holy Spirit and most beloved daughter of the father. She is therefore the one who is best placed to help weak and sinful human beings in all their needs. As a loving mother she cares for all. She is our mother of god counsel and sure refuge in all our difficulties.
Marian devotions thus venerate her for her spiritual greatness and redemptive role, invoke her as a never failing source of help and propose her for imitation as the most perfect example of faith, hope, love and obedience to God.
Mary, "In heaven is the image and beginning of the Church as it is to be perfected in the world to come. Likewise she shines forth on Earth, until the day of the Lord shall come (cf. Pet. 3:10) a sign of certain hope and comfort to the pilgrim People of God." (Vatican II, Lumen Gentium. Art. 68)
The beliefs of the Catholics of Sri Lanka depended on the theology of the Portuguese missionaries who first taught them the Christian faith. During the Dutch period when the Catholics were persecuted in the Dutch colonies their faith was sustained and nourished by Fr. Joseph Vaz and his Oratorian priests from Goa. Jacome Gonsalvez (1676-1742) was the greatest scholar among them. He was well versed in Sinhala and Tamil in addition to Portuguese, Dutch and his native Konkani.
The events of the visit of the three kings, the flight into Egypt the return to Nazareth, the visit to the temple when Jesus was 12 years old are all imaginatively described. Jacome Gonsalvez was well versed in the style and idiom of Sinhala and Tamil literature.
At the end of the work is a long dialogue between the mother and son .Mary is confused and inconsolable at the sight of her son's tortured body.
An Individualistic Asocial Mariology?
For several generations this theology has been communicated to Sri Lankan Catholics through the catechesis, the liturgy and the para liturgy such as the passion shows. Mariology and Christology were linked together in dogmatic theology and consequently in the prayers, hymns and literature of the Church. The prayers in turn communicated the doctrine. It is only in very recent years that there is a preaching in some Churches of a more Gospel-oriented explanation of the life of Jesus and Mary.
While Marian spirituality is historically deep-rooted and geographically widespread among the Catholics in Sri Lanka, its impact is of a rather individualistic and/or even other worldly nature.For several generations this theology has been communicated to Sri Lankan Catholics through the catechesis, the liturgy and the para liturgy such as the passion shows. Mariology and Christology were linked together in dogmatic theology and consequently were linked together in dogmatic theology and consequently in the prayers., hymns and literature of the church. The prayers in turn communicated the doctrine, it is only in very recently years that there is a pr preaching in some Churches of a more Gospel-oriented explanation of the life of Jesus and Mary.
While Marian spirituality is historically deep-rooted and geographically widespread among the Catholics in Sri Lanka, its impact is of a rather individualistic and /or even other worldly nature, it has not contributed adequately to the understanding and growth of new dimensions of mission and ministry required in our day as desired by the popes too as we mentioned in the next chapter.
Spiritually is influenced by the prevalent theology, and vice versa. Marian spirituality has been developed in the background of the cultural and social life of the people here, especially of the Catholic community as nurtured during the past few centuries.
Marian theology in Sri Lanka has come first from Portugal and in the British period after 1796 mainly from Southern Europe. Hence thereis great accent on external performances such as the processions and feasts. Their type of spirituality fits in readily with our national temperament, our traditions of difficulties in life such as in sickness and misfortunes. The shrines of saints such as St.Anthony ,St.Sebastian and St. Jude respond to certain felt needs of all persons, beyond boundaries of religions.
Now that a new approach to Christianity is being derived from the Gosepel witness to commitment to human life and social justice, a new Marialogy is also emerging and can be developed Correspondingly the prayers, meditations and hymns to Mary can be evolved so that the prayer life itself would bear witness to Mary's radical commitment to human fulfillment and social liberation in this life also. This generation can fulfill, specially due to our present challenges.
A. Development of Theology/Doctrine
The development of theology and spirituality in the Catholic Church presents an interesting example of change and continuity, of a claim to infallibility and the fact of the transformation of doctrine and practice. This raises the question of how changes in theology, even in doctrine, take place. Is it always an evolution In the same direction, or are there changes that are a contradiction of a previous position? What are the criteria for such changes? Who is entitled to make them? How do changes come about? How prepared are local churches for changes that take place in the universal church? How can we convince ourselves and others that we are holding the same view always and not changing our thinking due to reasons which are not of faith and theology?
Is it not a fact that sometimes changes in practice precede changes in thinking and teaching? This is a slow and painful process in which there can be much pain before the new light dawns. This can be seen in the case of the church's attitude towards religious freedom.
"For most of the church's history only rarely were Christians able even so much as to tolerate other religions, and they were almost never able to tolerate other forms of their own religion (heresies)."
"Notions of genuine human freedom as a religious right were soundly rejected by Popes Gregory XVI, Pius IX and Leo XIII because in their view these notions were inextricably bound up with indifferentism and rationalism. Nevertheless, in practice, if not in theory, Catholics took a far more tolerant view of Protestants. In this century the rise of totalitarian regimes of both the right and the left, the destruction of two world wars, and growing global consciousness helped religious leaders to focus on human dignity, the inviolable rights of the human person, the nature of human community and its relation to the state, and other issues affecting human solidarity. It was in this context, too, that Popes Pius XI, Pius XII, and John XXIII moved towards the acceptance of the ideals of human dignity and freedom consonant with the teachings of the church."
In the 19th century the central leadership of the Catholic Church had long term objections to accepting democracy and liberty even in civil society, especially due to the French Revolution. Then authority was said to so come from God that it could not be from the people. The objection to the socialistic demands for societal reforms was even more deep seated, till the historic encyclical of Leo XIII on the "Condition of the Working Classes" in 1891. Even this encyclical was very much downplayed in many churches during several decades.
The changes in the situation of colonial peoples after their Independence made the churches reconsider the attitude towards other religions. Now due to much work for consciousness raising in some local churches, the Catholics have changed to be among the foremost defenders of democratic rights and of free and fair elections as in the Philippines in 1986.
B. Some Recent Trends in Theology
In the renewal of Catholic theology in the second half of the 20th century, especially after Vatican II, various issues have been taken up in different regions according to their concerns and needs. The earlier renewal was in Western Europe following the Enlightenment, with the studies in biblical interpretation and hermeneutics. They reflected on the mission of the Church in the context of European Rationalism, Modernism, Darwin, Marx and Freud and the growing secularization in the West. They were reaping the fruit of decades of biblical studies based on linguistic, cultural and historical analysis.
In the United States, with their experience of the separation of church and state, John Courtenay Murray, perhaps the strongest theological proponent of religious freedom in the church, led in the rethinking on the relationships between church and state and the need of religious tolerance. He had a principle impact in the formulation of the Vatican II "Declaration on Religious Liberty" which recognized that the dignity of the human person consists in his responsible use of freedom.
In Germany Johannes Metz, agonized by the experience of the horrors of Nazism, developed a "political theology", emphasizing the need of witnessing to Christian values in the social and political spheres also. Such thinking had much impact on the Western countries and contributed to the growing commitment of Western Christians and churches to social justice, at least within their societies.
The East-West cold war and the fear of nuclear annihilation motivated groups towards building up the peace movement, beyond denominational, religious and ideological boundaries.
North America was foremost in the development of Black theology and feminist theology, both having strands of a liberational approach.
The feminist theologians bring in the dimension of gender analysis of Christian life and thought in every area of life and study. This is a growing movement that has now a quasi universal and radical questioning of almost all aspects of theology and spirituality. The starting point of feminist theological reflection is the acute consciousness of the systematic exclusion of women from leadership in the life of the church. They have been excluded from the study of theology, and hence from teaching and ministry as well as administration in the church.
From this reflection they see that theology and spirituality have been conditioned to legitimize male domination throughout centuries. Three dimensions of the development of feminist theology are the demonstration of the androcentric and misogynist bias in the whole of church life including scripture and theological tradition. Secondly, they tried to draw up alternative norms and sources of tradition to challenge these biases. This is a process of deconstruction of traditional theology and spirituality. Thirdly they seek a reconstruction and re-envisioning of the theological themes and life relationships to free them from biases against women.
Now there are numerous feminist theologians in all the Continents of the world. Various trends are rapidly developing within this movement. Some radically question whether a male God can be a liberator for women. Thus Mary Daly repudiates the possibility of the reform of the Christian tradition and seeks a new spirituality. Rosemary R. Ruether, Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza are among the leading Catholic feminist theologians from North America. There is also a trend for a more holistic spirituality that seeks to transcend difference and divisions of gender and make common cause with the other struggles of humanity today such as for the preservation of the environment. Marian theology is also developed by several feminist theologians as seen in the latter part of this book.
Theological rethinking is now developing very much in Asia and Africa, especially since emancipation from colonial rule. In Africa the accent has been on issues such as African culture, family and community values, traditional religions, relation to ancestors, poverty and liberation from discrimination on the basis of race and tribe. The relationship with Islam is a dimension of Christian reflection and life in most African countries. In South Africa the numerous theologians and church leaders like Desmond Tutu and Albert Nolan and some churches themselves contributed to the struggle against Apartheid and the recent success of the democratic process in transferring power to the Black majority in a compromise solution.
In Asia the thinking is influenced by the realities of poverty, massive populations and religious plurality, in addition to the other dimensions that are bringing about theological renewal elsewhere. Hence the ferment here, especially South Asia, is very active and leading to much further questioning than elsewhere. The nature of the human condition, the understanding of the presence of the divine in the world, and the identity and role of Jesus the Christ, and the mission of Church are all under scrutiny in this environment. Asian theology is being developed in many countries: especially the Philippines, South Korea, India and Sri Lanka. Oppression of caste and tribals is also leading to an elaboration of liberation theology in India.
Throughout the world there is a growing concern for the environment and ecology. The future of planet earth is worrying many - particularly due to the noticeable changes in the climate and the known exhaustion of some limited non-renewable resources. This is a spiritual and theological problem of lifestyle and attitude towards nature.
C. Issues Involved
In all these theologies there is process of theological de-construction and re-construction in stages including:
i) a reflection by the victims from a lived experience of oppression and marginalization,
ii) leading to a critical rethinking of the interpretation of scripture and tradition that was seen as de facto allied to discrimination on the basis of race, gender or social class and religion.
iii) Consequent on the experience of these different groups there has been an analysis of doctrines and authority patterns in the church based on gender, race, class and even caste.
iv) The issues raised in the process include the understanding of the human condition of sin beginning with original sin, gender relations partly related to the interpretation of the responsibility for original sin, the nature of the redemptive process, the role of Jesus Christ and of the church in human salvation,
v) The rethinking of theology includes a revaluation of the type of formation of the clergy and leadership in the church. Traditionally the formation in the seminaries has been attuned to the continuation of the status quo in the church and society.
vi) The understanding and practice of spirituality in the church had been such as not to contest such discriminations that prevailed in the dominant society. Such an approach was helped by the narrow self- centred individualistic "salvation-of-soul" perspective that prevailed in Europe especially in the modern period after the decline of feudalism. The shift is now to a broader interpersonal and social concern according to the perspective from which the spirituality is developed.
D. Mary and Modern Women: Feminism
Pope Paul notes that some women are getting "disenchanted with devotion to the Blessed Virgin and finding it difficult to take as an example Mary of Nazareth" interpreted traditionally in comparison with the vast spheres of activity open to women living with equality in the home, in politics, society and scientific research and intellectual life. Paul VI exhorts "theologians those responsible for the local Christian communities and the faithful themselves to examine these difficulties with due care."
Thereafter the Pope offers his own reflections for this task. He points out that the difficulties alluded to above are closely related to certain aspects of the image of Mary found in popular writings. They are not connected with the Gospel image of Mary nor with the doctrinal data. It is normal that different generations would interpret Mary in different socio-cultural contexts. The Marian image of earlier ages should be verified with today's conditions and Mary in the Scripture.
The modern woman will note with pleasant surprise that Mary of Nazareth, while completely devoted to the will of God, was far from being a timidly submissive woman or one whose piety was repellent to others; on the contrary, she was a woman who did not hesitate to proclaim that God vindicates the humble and the oppressed, and removes the powerful people of this world from their privileged positions (cf. Lk. 1:51-53). The modern woman will recognize in Mary, who "stands out among the poor and humble of the Lord", a woman of strength, who experienced poverty and suffering, flight and exile (cf Mt. 2:13-23).... These are but examples, which show clearly that the figure of the Blessed Virgin does not disillusion any of the profound expectations of the men and women of our time but offers them the perfect model of the disciple of the Lord: the disciple who builds up the earthly and temporal city while being a diligent pilgrim towards the heavenly and eternal city, the disciple who works for that justice which sets free the oppressed and for that charity which assists the needy; but above all, the disciple who is the active witness of that love which builds up Christ in people's hearts".
The Pope then corrects certain attitudes of piety already denounced by Vatican II:
"... the exaggeration of content and form which even falsifies doctrine and likewise the small- mindedness which obscures the figure and mission of Mary.... vain credulity, ...merely external practices... sterile and ephemeral sentimentality, ...Careful defence against these errors and deviations will render devotion to the Blessed Virgin more vigorous and more authentic.... It will ensure that this devotion is objective in its historical setting, and for this reason everything that is obviously legendary or false must be eliminated. It will ensure that this devotion matches its doctrinal content - hence the necessity of avoiding a one-sided presentation of the figure of Mary, which by over stressing one element compromises the overall picture given by the Gospel. It will make this devotion clear in its motivation; hence every unworthy self-interest is to be carefully banned from the area of what is sacred.
39.... When the children of the Church unite their voices with the voice of the unknown woman in the Gospel and glorify the Mother of Jesus by saying to him: "Blessed is the womb that bore you and the breasts that you sucked" (Lk. 11: 27) they will be led to ponder the divine Master's serious reply: "Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and keep it!" (Lk. 11:28). While it is true that this reply is in itself lively praise of Mary, as various Fathers of the Church interpreted it and the Second Vatican Council has confirmed, it is also an admonition to us to live our lives in accordance with God's commandments. It is also an echo of other words of the Saviour: "Not every one who says to me "Lord, Lord", will enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of my Father who is in heaven (Mt. 7:21), and again: "You are my friends if you do what I command you"(Jn. 15:14).
With such a renewed Marian theology and spirituality....
"56.... Contemplated in the episodes of the Gospels and in the reality which she already possesses in the City of God, the Blessed Virgin Mary offers a calm vision and a reassuring word to modern man, torn as he often is between anguish and hope, defeated by the sense of his own limitations and assailed by limitless aspirations, troubled in his mind and divided in his heart, uncertain before the riddle of death, oppressed by loneliness while yearning for fellowship, a prey to boredom and disgust. She shows forth the victory of hope over anguish, of fellowship over solitude, of peace over anxiety, of joy and beauty over boredom and disgust, of eternal visions over earthly ones, of life over death.